Feminist Messages in Eighteenth-Century Courtship Novels
As the eighteenth-century courtship novel developed, its narrative techniques developed alongside it. The manners in which courtship were depicted and conveyed to audiences changed throughout the life of the novel, as well as the intentions of the authors. According to The Art of Courtship, or the School of Love, “courtship, or good behaviors, is the most accomplish’d way of addressing carriage in all company, as civil respect for inferiors, comely behavior and modesty in discourse and action;…which are the chief ornaments of either sex; and gain a good repute among the very wisest of men” (The Art of Courtship 13). Using this definition as a solid foundation for courtship in the eighteenth century, a portrayal of fictitious courtship can be compared to the actuality of courtship and the ways in which authors enhanced these courtships based on their creativity. Eighteenth-century courtship novelists Haywood, Burney, and Austen combined realistic characteristics of courtship with their fictitious portrayals of courtship and creativity in narrative techniques to present their personal messages of the necessity of independent women, the flaws of courtship, and the self-development of young females.
As with any society at the time, England was quite similar to other nations for young bachelors in search of eligible bachelorettes. The process of courting was the way in which young people engaged in entertainment and came to know their life partners. The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines courting as having a romantic relationship with someone before getting married (“courting”). Courting allowed young adults to meet and socialize largely un-chaperoned, at various entertainment gatherings. Young males began courting in their late teens due to the fact that most men waited until the completion of their education and the attainment of financial stability before proposing marriage. After stabilizing themselves for the future, marriage became the next step in life as they searched for partners who could support their economic efforts by running their homes and raising their children. Marriage was not a journey which young men were expected to undertake alone. Courtship was generally quite prolonged and it was normally a collaborative exercise involving numerous parents, relatives and friends. Young men were also well supplied with advice from the moralists who emphasized a woman's character and the importance of “mutual liking” rather than her looks (Fletcher 427).
As far as females were concerned, they approached courtship and marriage very differently. After completing their domestic training, they enjoyed late adolescence as a special phase of life, experiencing freedoms that they would soon have to relinquish in efforts to secure a husband and raise a family. Despite the loss of freedoms that came with marriage, courting allowed females to have high levels of power in relationships prior to marriage; it was their decision whether to accept or reject a suitor. While women began courting as early as fifteen or sixteen, most deferred marriage until their early twenties; yet, there were others who married quickly for fear that waiting too long might eliminate the availability of choice husbands. Although arranged marriages became a subject of the past with the increasing number of people marrying for love over necessity, parents maintained expectations of being consulted about possible partners and the ability to offer advice to their children (Schellekens 6).
The actuality of courtship had its similarities to the fictitious depictions of courtship from the viewpoints of Haywood, Burney, and Austen, but many elements were put into the authors’ personal context in the novels to elaborate messages of female development in society. The courtship novel developed and enhanced as more authors began writing about courtship and adding their own interpretations and messages to the genre. The history of the courtship novel was not one of complex beginnings, “because its domestic setting and linear plot easily accommodated not only conventional wisdom about women’s roles but also incipient resistant ideologies, the courtship novel was an ideal medium for expressing middle-class women’s values and issues” (Green 16). The courtship novel began as a conduct book for young courters. These “self-help” handbooks gave advice on what to look for in a partner and how to approach a fellow courter in various situations.
As this type of literature developed more over time, examples including random characters and caricatures were then included to develop a full-scoped picture of how to conduct oneself in certain situations. Also, examples of the types of letters that should be exchanged between two courters were included in these “eighteenth-century courtship for dummies” books. Two further steps were needed before the courtship novel came to be. The Bluestockings movement was one of these steps. The movement was a literary community of select men and women who met to hold informal conversations and share “female-authored courtship handbooks and novels” (Green 21). The Feminist Controversy was a second movement that added an important body of conduct books and courtship novels to the general reading public (Frairman 14). These movements aided in giving momentum to the rising feminist ideas of authors seeking to change embedded societal views of women and domesticity. From here, the fictitious elements of the novel became more illuminated than the courtship instructions of the handbooks and the courtship novel was born.
Males dominated the writing of the courtship handbooks, but once the handbook evolved into the courtship novel, females rapidly became more involved in the writing of such novels and their works boosted the success and impact of the courtship novel on society. Creativity also played a major role in the success of the courtship novel. In some novels, creativity involved developing a new world view, while in others it took on a more traditional sense of artistic expression. However, in courtship novels, creativity was closely linked with female protagonist’s self-development (Doughtery par. 2). For many heroines in courtship novels, the author’s creativity aided the heroine’s self-determined search for individuality. Although all of courtship novel’s heroines married happily at the end of their stories, none of them married until they first developed their own identities with unwavering strength.
With narrative techniques varying from author to author, each had an opportunity to contribute to the novel’s holistic analysis. Despite individual contributions, many of the courtship novels contained similar characteristics with one another: basic character roles, plots, and happily-ever-after conclusions. Standard courtship novels possessed a female heroine facing a personal and often degrading issue blocking her from her ultimate self identity. These novels also possessed a man of “lawless gallantry” that did not respect the civil and social codes in place for a proper courtship. Alongside the lawless gallant was the ideal gentleman that desired to love the heroine whole-heartedly and respectfully. Most often than not, there was a central father figure or male guide in the heroine’s life to protect her from the evils of courtship (Forsyth 149-157). As the heroine searched for herself, she was forced to contend with the lawless gallant in an effort to win the ideal gentleman and discover the truth of herself that was in hiding throughout the majority of the novel.
Three noteworthy and influential female authors of courtship novels were Eliza Haywood, Frances Burney, and Jane Austen. These three women excelled in writing courtship novels, and were also successful in elaborating their personal messages about society and women to the general reading public. The novels of Haywood, Burney, and Austen possessed all of these characteristics, but differed in how they were presented and handled in the culmination of the novel; however, there was both a desire and need from all three authors to portray a different type of woman than to which society was accustomed. By suggesting a woman that could lead her own life and be happy without the obligation to fulfill societal standards, female courtship authors sought to enable female readers to live their lives for themselves without considering the obligations they would have to others. These women also wanted their female readers to step outside the submissive marital roles they were accustomed to having in their homes and society.
Eliza Haywood took a bolder stance than the other two authors, as she blatantly gave her heroine influential powers for herself and those around her. Similar to many of the authors of the time, Haywood definitively presented moralistic lessons to be gleaned from her narrative while writing of extremely risqué topics. Her early female characters were sensual, intelligent, and in control of the majority of the situations they found themselves in. Although giving separate plots for the main male and female characters, the overall plot of the novel centered on the female’s constant demand for more attention than that of the male. Through the separation of plots and voices for the lead male and female characters, Haywood emphasized the fact that males were composed of numerous flaws regardless of how ideal the courtship may seem (Green 31).
In Haywood’s later novels, her female characters became more subdued after she came under harsh criticism in Pope’s Dunciad (Green 25). Taking on a more Pamela-esque female prototype, Haywood continued to pursue her messages of the necessity of women to be their own persons. In no way did Haywood work to idealize her characters, but instead honed in on their strengths and weaknesses as people. More so than others, she especially brought the focal point of the novel to the strengths of her heroines. In an effort to push the beginning feminist thoughts at the time and prove to women their self-worth beyond that of a domestic wife and mother, Eliza Haywood used the skill of her authorship to enlighten women to seek more for themselves and push beyond the boundaries of the standard roles society had chosen for them. One such example of Haywood’s early works is Fantomina, a novel centered on a woman’s quest for love and sexual satisfaction.
Haywood placed her female protagonist Fantomina into various romance scenarios and allowed her to be the determinant of every aspect of the relationship with her male lover. Fantomina followed the stereotype of the young, attractive female that possessed high levels of self-respect. As she discovered her yearnings for Beauplaisir, she devised various plans to win his love by presenting herself as a different woman each time his infatuation with one of her “personalities” ended. Through this massive charade, Haywood gave Fantomina authority over the relationship because she determined how long Beauplaisir would love her and spend time with her. Not only this, but Fantomina also dictated how and to what extent Beauplaisir would be involved in their relationship by choosing every meeting location, “that if he would insist on passing some Part of the Night with her, to carry him there, thinking she might with more Security to her Honour entertain him at a Place where she was Mistress, than at any of his own choosing,” (Backscheider and Richetti 229). This level of authority for females was unheard of and insisted that women of society should not sit back and allow men to love them as they pleased but instead to dictate the proceedings of their relationship just as equally, if not more, than males. In the end of this convoluted tale, one cannot determine if a lesson is taken away from this experience by Fantomina. However, the audience is more than capable of noticing the authority and independence that Fantomina possessed throughout the story.
Despite her high status, Fantomina gained and maintained the affection of the lover she desired. She also performed every obligation and desire that she had for herself without the aid of Beauplaisir. Never did she perform any domestic roles or cater to Beauplaisir as a humble servant; she withheld her dignity and pride as an independent woman while living as she pleased without answering to anyone. As for the role Beauplaisir played, he functioned as both the lawless gallant and ideal lover. Fantomina desired him because of his status, charm, and affection as is evident in her encounter with him as the widow, “He now took the liberty of kissing away her Tears and catching the Sighs as they issued from her lips” (Backscheider and Richetti 237); she also despised him for the way he chased after her when she changed personas. In an effort to break even with Beauplaisir, Fantomina played multiple women at one time to force him to be with her numerous characters as he promised each he would. Fantomina “outwitted even the most subtle of the deceiving Kind, and while he thinks to fool me is himself the only beguiled person,” (Backscheider and Richetti 239) and took her anger to new heights by culminating her actions in the persona of Incognita. Although Beauplaisir offered great attention to Fantomina and fulfilled her desires sexually and amorously as the ideal lover, his polar opposite as the lawless gallant constantly betrayed Fantomina, only pursuing her to fulfill his sexual desires while quickly tiring in his affections toward her. These themes progressed and became more subtle, not only with Haywood’s later writings, but with other authors as well.
Emerging several years after Haywood, Burney’s form of writing furthered enhanced the courtship genre. Burney’s novels typically incorporated the self-development of the female protagonist as she journeyed through life to find herself; however, this concept quite contradicted itself in the main characters of each of Burney’s four novels. These contradictions embodied the “ideological tensions inhering in the period's complex demarcations of woman's social place” (Epstein 1). Burney’s protagonists faced complex problems that energized the novel of courtship in the later eighteenth-century, and gave a surge of popularity to several of her writings. The most popular and significant example of Burney’s incorporation of the protagonist facing complex problems is evident in Evelina.
Due to its nature as a satire of oppressive masculine values and social hypocrisies of the day that shape Evelina’s life, Evelina won high praise and a total of four published editions. Alongside writing the novel from the perspective of Evelina, Burney included a distinct sophistication in the narrative to reverse the typical role of the narrator and heroine. Many critics saw Burney as drawing attention to the plight of women in the eighteenth century, especially on issues surrounding questions of romance and marriage (Commire par. 4). Although this was one interpretation of her incorporation of character flaws in her female protagonist, her work is set apart from others and seen as a guide to later female writers. Burney's heroines were proper, elegant, and innocent, while naïve and unaware of social danger; apprehensive yet fiercely self-protective; ambiguously presented in a certain class although adhering to and desiring the lifestyle of the upper-class; apparently absent of knowledge about social standards, yet acutely observant of others and their presentation of social standards and conscious of their own desires. Combining two polar opposite purposes, Burney not only mocks society through the honesty of several of her main characters, but also elaborates the ideal qualities to look for in a suitable husband during a courtship.
Burney’s Evelina was born into a lower status than that of Fantomina. This did not change the level of authority that Evelina possessed in her relationships. Although she was deeply infatuated, and progressively in love with Lord Orville, she pushed aside emotions on several occasions to keep herself distanced from him when she suspected that his intentions were not acceptable to what she felt she deserved. After receiving the ill-fated letter from Lord Orville in which he speaks of “The correspondence you have so sweetly commenced I shall be proud in continuing, and I hope the strong sense I have of the favour you do me, will prevent your withdrawing it,” (Burney 214), Evelina understood his actions to be outside the realm of respectable courtship. She shut herself off from Orville, and because of Evelina’s ability to shut Lord Orville out whenever she pleased, Evelina maintained the authority of the relationship. As she was without social reform, she still succeeded in acquiring Lord Orville as her husband, and on many occasions acted as she pleased without answering to the demands of an oppressive male overlord. Excluding the lack of status Evelina initially held, after her adoption by her father Evelina’s status elevated and coalesced with the demeanor to which she held herself.
Like Fantomina, Evelina also possessed high levels of power in her “courtship” with Lord Orville, but before she could become infiltrated in this courtship she first had to fight off the incessant advances of Sir Clement Willoughby. His pursuit of Evelina was very much outside the understanding of social norms at the time, and his behavior was borderline harassment. Willoughby constantly forced himself on Evelina, continuously made efforts to get himself alone with her, and disregarded all ill-feelings that Evelina had towards him. In her fight to ward off Willoughby and acquire an honorable last name for herself, Evelina discovered who she was. She discovered that she was without social reform, yet was capable of handling herself in situations above her social status as she “united herself for ever with the object of her dearest, her eternal affection,” (Burney 336). Evelina knew nothing of the rules of courtship, but did not let that stop her from finding ultimate happiness and being with the only man she felt suitable for her.
Similar yet distinct when compared to Frances Burney, Jane Austen possessed an authorship of wit and romance. Austen's writing style was a mixture of neoclassicism and romanticism, with her work marking the transition in English between the two literary forms. Neo-classicism encouraged the point of reason and restraint in writing being logical and following a structured form. Romanticism encouraged passion and imagination in writing, being emotional, and following a flowing form. With these two forms varying greatly, Austen’s strength as a writer came into play with her success in combining both of these forms to make a distinct style of writing for herself. Austen used her sharp and sarcastic wit in all of her writing. She could come up with a powerful and dramatic scene on one page in an effort to lead into a biting and satirical scene on the next page.
Austen never focused on scenery or stage setting in her novels; she laid out the basics and allowed the resulting dialogue to explain the details in a natural manner. The lack of indulgent details displayed the basic neoclassic style Austen preferred to follow when it came to descriptive passages. Austen may have used neoclassicism as her primary writing style, but she added a romantic touch when it came to her characters. Her characters' words and actions built slowly to create a vivid picture of each person. She focused heavily on the art of conversation and allowed it to display the growth and development of the main characters. Her conversational style allowed her to organize the plot and characters from the observations of those around her dealing with basic problems of morality, social and financial security, and life-style and maturity in a natural manner (Morini 15-22). With these advanced characteristics in Austen’s style, she was able to focus her works on the flaws of courtship and the complexities of love, evident in one of her best-selling novels Sense and Sensibility.
Austen’s Sense and Sensibility was more of a development in the courtship novel than Fantomina and Evelina. In this novel of reason and emotion, there were two main female characters, Elinor and Marianne, each wrestling with their views of love and the proper manner in which they must be carried out. Elinor, a young woman of much intellect, rationality, and reason, never allowed emotion to take the better of her in a courtship until proven to that her courter’s feeling were equal to her own. Marianne on the other hand allowed only emotion to dictate the course of her courtship without allowing the partiality of reason to keep her from being hurt. Sense and Sensibility also contains numerous courtships and relationships in an effort to prove the faults and flaws that every courtship, no matter how ideal, may have. Elinor’s love, Edward Ferrars, showed great interest in her while being secretly engaged to another. Marianne immediately fell deeply in love with John Willoughby only to find out that his feelings were not the same for her, and he was to marry someone of a more wealthy standing.
Portraying the immediate happiness in each of their courtships, then slowly expounding upon the flaws that led to their downfalls, Austen was successful in proving that there is no correct way to approach a courtship. Each female was left heartbroken and had to endure the negative consequences for their behaviors in their courtships until they went through a maturation and self-searching process. Elinor enjoyed the company and conversation with Edward and grew extremely fond of him, but battled with his lack of attention and care for her at times, “Disappointed, however, and vexed as she was, and sometimes displeased with his uncertain behavior to herself…” (Austen 99). Disregarding these signs, she still gave her heart to him and hid its broken fragments when dealing with his engagement to Lucy. Marianne fell too deeply in love with Willoughby and became physically and mentally ill as a result of his feelings not being the same for her.
Yearning to hide her own emotions and protect her family rationally, Elinor had to gain more emotion to create a more balanced personality than her reason and rationale alone gave her. “ From the moment of learning that Lucy was married to another, that Edward was free, to the moment of his justifying the hopes which had so instantly followed, she was everything by turns but tranquil” (Austen 338). Marianne had to gain more rationale and reason to quell her over-enthused emotional state when courting. “Marianne Dashwood was born to an extraordinary fate. She was born to discover the falsehood of her own opinions, and to counteract, by her conduct, her most favourite maxims” (Austen 352). Not only did Austen prove that there must be a balance of sense and sensibility in everyone, but more so than that, she proved that no matter how ideal and happy a courtship may seem, flaws will always be present and one most learn how to work through those flaws and grow in order to be happy.
Haywood, Burney, and Austen were pioneering women of their time. Witnessing the necessity of attention needing to be brought to the plight of eighteenth-century women, these authors decided to attack the issue through their writing. By either depicting strong-willed women that were considered unconventional at the time, or mocking the standards of society at the time, these authors were able to garner support for women and allow society to see the negative implications of these standards toward women. Although it would take years for changes to come about, the personal messages of Haywood, Burney, and Austen against standard societal roles for women opened the door for better treatment of women by themselves and others. Due to these women sacrificing their success and practically their lives, they used their talents to speak against injustice and initiate the desire for change.

Improper Behavior as a Didactic Tool

The well known cliché “you can catch more flies with honey than with vinegar” pertains to the courtship novels that arose in the eighteenth century in England. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, Frances Burney’s Evelina, and Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility are three such novels that exemplify how acting “with honey” during courtship results in the desired outcome.

The authors of these books use examples of proper courtship situations from classic didactic texts at the time, such as The Regency Companion and The Lover’s Instructor. They offer guidance, especially for socially accepted courtship practices. The failures that ensue from incorrect courtship methods teach the reader how not to behave during a courtship. Likewise, the success from the proper actions demonstrates how one should act in situations. Authors of eighteenth-century didactic courtship novels use the failure of scheming and deceit to show the value of proper courtship practices as presented in classic didactic texts. They emphasize the necessity for each man to treat his partner with respect, consideration, and honesty when trying to court her.

In the eighteenth century, a new wave of fiction, dubbed the novel, began. This new style of writing provided entertaining, fictional prose. It was often a topic for debate within society; not only was the content of the books discussed but the authors as well. Didactic texts were another prevalent genre. They were popular at this point in England because it was a time of political change and instability. “The [texts]…represent…the dominant (and highly successful) ‘didactic tradition’ during a period of intense social and political change” (Pearce 58). Such didactic texts encouraged citizens to create a more balanced lifestyle and a routine for their everyday activities; they strongly emphasized the ideal of stability. The novels soon began to include the teachings commonly found in the advising texts as a way to educate the public. They expressed the appropriate behavior in all situations, and these social norms became quite widespread.

As the authors of novels began incorporating didactic messages into their writing, they found a larger audience and a more entertaining way to promote cultural norms and expectations. Lynne Pearce explains how “values were…also circulated via the conduct books of the day” and how “it is important to realize that the dialectic of entertainment and instruction formed part of a long tradition. [The authors’] challenge, as it were, was to communicate the message… within a story-line that held the reader’s interest…” (Pearce 65). Holding the reader’s attention became a more important function of the plot. Authors created often-exaggerated situations to both emphasize their point as well as to keep the reader’s interest. This is seen in the works of Samuel Richardson, Frances Burney, and Jane Austen. They portray scenes and circumstances of courtship in a not entirely realistic manner in order to express their message for the reader.

Samuel Richardson’s Pamela tells the story of a young girl seduced by the master of her house, Mr. B. Frances Burney shares the story of a naïve girl in Evelina who is introduced into the world of men, lavish balls, and difficult relationships. Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen is about two sisters and their first experiences with courtship. Each of these novels characterizes a different type of courtship plot. Pamela must overcome the trials of her deceitful master in order to discover their love and compatibility for one another. Lord Orville and Sir Clement bombard Evelina with unfamiliar situations and feelings that make her uncomfortable until she discovers her true affection for Lord Orville. Edward and Willoughby upset Elinor and Marianne, respectively, with their pretenses, which lead to new relationships and their ultimate resolution in love. All three novels portray the difficulties of courtship during the eighteenth century. Through these hardships the authors show how acting correctly from the beginning of the courtship eliminates the discomfort felt by the women.

The Lover’s Instructor, an explicit didactic text from the time, gives examples of how to cultivate an ideal relationship. It contains messages aimed at both women and men about what typical courtship practices should look like. Through multiple epistolary examples of the feelings of couples—as seen in Pamela and Evelina—the book instructs the reader how to maintain a relationship through letters. This includes a section dedicated to “the art of personal courtship, representing the necessary questions to be ask’d by men, and the proper answers to be made by women when such questions are ask’d” (Anonymous 10). Richardson, Burney, and Austen use similar examples of guidelines for proper behavior in order to impart their message about correct courtship methods to the reader.

The Regency Companion by Sharon Laudermilk and Teresa Hamlin provides an almost complete instruction manual of how an elite member of society should conduct his or her daily life. They describe how “there was a prescribed procedure for a proper courtship” (Laudermilk 73). As seen in the three novels, however, one single procedure of courtship does not exist; instead there are multiple correct ways to attain a partnership. The authors try to portray the most effective and acceptable methods in their novels. The messages implied by these novels were about the necessary steps both partners in the courtship must take and about “the rules in [this] clearly delineated world. Men and women flaunt[ed] these rules at their peril…each sex [had] to live within the framework that the Polite World recognis[ed] as fit and proper” (Laudermilk vii).

Both The Regency Companion and The Lover’s Instructor were preliminary examples of didactic texts that quickly evolved into other forms of writing. This style of explicit instruction and rules remained common within society; however, a more popular method for sharing this type of advice arose with the introduction of the novel. Katherine Green writes: “courtship novels were didactic; they theorized overtly on women’s conduct…they exposed threats to women’s peace: authoritarian parents, rakish suitors, and even fashionable London. On the two issues of education and marriage, courtship novels sought to raise women’s expectations” (Green 13-14). The offering of both advice and warning proved useful to the readers and made the books popular. The author was also able to create an entertaining plotline for the audience, while still describing proper behavior. While some authors were more obvious in their edification, others more adeptly hid their messages within the story. Richardson, Burney, and Austen demonstrated their subtle advice through examples of bad behavior during courtship as a way to prove the benefit of proper behavior.

The behavior of the men in these novels includes improper actions that were not valued by didactic texts at this time. They signify the bad intentions of the men towards the women they are attempting to court and why they fail. The actions are contradictory to the basic messages about courtship promoted in didactic texts. The novels are filled with many such instances of improper male behavior towards his partner. Mr. B in Pamela tricks the heroine into staying with him and makes many attempts on her virtue. Sir Clement Willoughby in Evelina remains overly persistent and bothersome in his attempt to gain Evelina’s affection. In Sense and Sensibility, Edward and John Willoughby lie about their availability to the two women and create relationships that they promptly end. Joan Forbes argues that these acts do not work in the men’s favor, but instead how “the heroine learn[s] to act and protect herself. When the heroine marries, she does not…marry the man who has romantically harassed her across the pages of the narrative” (Forbes 297). The heroine will not reward her suitor for his bad behavior and either requires change or finds a more respectful man to court her. All of the examples seen in Pamela, Evelina, and Sense and Sensibility demonstrate the incorrectness of these improper actions by their ultimate failure to win over the female.

Richardson’s use of scheming in Pamela defines the overall plot of the book. Many instances of trickery exist in the novel, and they all exhibit examples of disrespect towards Pamela. At the beginning of the book, as the reader begins to learn of Mr. B’s dishonest intentions, Mr. B demonstrates his first true act of immorality. One evening while Pamela and Mrs. Jervis are talking,

“[Her] wicked Master had hid himself, base gentleman as he is! In [Mrs. Jervis’s] closet…out rush’d [her] Master, in a rich silk and silver Morning Gown. [She] scream’d, and [ran] to the Bed…instantly he came to the bed…when [her] Fright let [her] know it…[she] sighed, scream’d, and fainted away (Richardson, 62-63).

The Regency Companion warns against the “lustful beasts [that] were the best of the male sex!” (Anonymous 73) Mr. B becomes a “lustful beast” with his intentions towards Pamela. He ignores the acceptable path to pleasing the woman he would like to have for his own. Pamela continues to hold this incident against Mr. B, and while she may have previously denied his bad actions, this remains in her mind.

The next and most consequential deceitful act of Mr. B occurs when he tricks Pamela into believing he is sending her home to her parents but actually abducts her and takes her to his other estate. This increases Pamela’s fear of Mr. B and what he will do once he arrives. He keeps her captive there under the watchful eye of the harsh Mrs. Jewkes, and Pamela suffers in misery. Once he arrives, Mr. B does nothing to assuage her fears when he once again attacks her after “the pretended She came into bed…but he kissed [her] with frightful Vehemence; and then his Voice broke upon [her] like a Clap of Thunder” (Richardson 203). He forces her in bed and attempts to take her virtue, but she lapses into hysterics and he leaves. These antagonistic acts of Mr. B’s do nothing to endear Pamela to him and only serve to make her more fearful and wary of him. He does not consider what he does wrong and must learn from his mistakes before he can achieve the relationship he craves with Pamela.

In Frances Burney’s Evelina, Sir Clement Willoughby commits acts of trickery against Evelina by in an attempt to gain her attention. Each of his plots does not conform to the messages put forth by didactic instruction. The Regency Companion claims “it was [the male] who must arrange an introduction through a third party” (Anonymous 73). Sir Clement Willoughby does not do this with Evelina; instead, he inserts himself into her usual party and attempts to spend more time with her in this way. He constantly manipulates her to remain in his company, as opposed to allowing her the choice. This breach of privacy goes against societal expectations. Willoughby continues his misconduct after an event when the two leave in a carriage together, which already concerns Evelina. Her suspicions escalate when Evelina “began to apprehend that [Willoughby] had himself ordered the [coachman] to go a wrong way, and [she] was so much alarmed at the idea… (Burney 99). This scheme only serves to further alienate Evelina from Sir Clement, and she tries to avoid him after this. Willoughby does not relent, however, and he once again tries to win Evelina’s favor when he allegedly saves her from a group of men in an alleyway. She does not take complete comfort in this either, however, as he once again takes advantage of their time alone and “led [her] …into another of the dark alleys, instead of the place whither [she] meant to go” (Burney 198). Evelina pleads to be led back to her party and makes her distaste of Willoughby clear before finally quitting his company.

The final occasion of Willoughby’s wrongful behavior occurs later in the book when Evelina discovers that Sir Clement wrote the letter she had received signed ‘Lord Orville’. This effectively ends their relationship, as not only did he lie, but the letter was also the basis for many of Evelina’s concerns about Lord Orville. After this event, Evelina claims that she could not imagine “another human being who could serve an interest by such a deception” (Burney 358). All of Willoughby’s attempts to win the attention of Evelina fail because he continues to go against her wishes. He does not understand the proper way to treat a lady, much less how to court one.

Sense and Sensibility contains two primary acts of deceit from the males that alter the course of the expected plot. Elinor begins a relationship with Edward in the beginning of the book. They have the same “inclinations and tastes” and get along quite well (Austen 22). Unfortunately, Elinor learns that her friend, Lucy, has been secretly engaged to Edward for the past four years. This news devastates Elinor and she feels betrayed; “for a few moments, she was almost overcome— her heart sunk within her, and she could hardly stand” (Austen 129). This falsehood of Edwards’s shows how he ignores the expected rules for marriage declarations; as stated as proper procedure in The Regency Companion, he did not “seek the approval of the young lady’s father first…[nor did he realize] that after this formal announcement, the gentleman who made the offer had no honorable way to withdraw” (Anonymous 75). Edward and Lucy do not remain engaged, nor are the families completely aware of the situation. The lack of communication between parties was not proper behavior, and he hurts Elinor with his actions.

Marianne, Elinor’s younger sister, experiences similar emotional turmoil in her relationship with Mr. John Willoughby. The effects of his actions show how incorrect courtship does not only harm the relationship but deeply hurts those involved as well. Willoughby enters the story by rescuing Marianne while she is out on a walk one day. They quickly become attached and begin a relationship. Marianne remains in a “violent oppression of spirits” when he must return to his home but looks forward to seeing him in London (Austen 82). He surprises her, however, when she finds Willoughby not eager to see her and newly engaged to another woman. This information destroys Marianne, and she spends a long period of time wallowing in “a consciousness of misery” and disappointment (Austen 190). Willoughby’s deceit goes against the presented morals of proper courtship, which include honesty with one’s partner. His behavior shows his selfishness and lack of awareness of how to behave in situations of courtship.

While these instances in Sense and Sensibility do not continue the traditional examples of schemes and immoral plots as seen in the other two novels, the examples of deceit affect the protagonists just as profoundly and provide instances of improper courtship tactics. All three books demonstrate the failure of these attempts to win the women over. The failures are used to teach the reader how inappropriate actions during courtship do not succeed. Richardson, Burney, and Austen counteract the improper behavior by including examples of the appropriate behavior expected in these social situations. These examples are generally shown after or in contrast to the unsuccessful behavior of the men. It is this behavior that ultimately triumphs—and this is the message the authors would like to share with their audience.

Pamela only begins to trust Mr. B once he changes his behavior towards her. It takes him time to gain her confidence, however, and Pamela still takes precautions against him. Mr. B alters himself in ways that he knows will please Pamela, though it “alarms both [her] Hopes and Fears” (Richardson 211). He becomes more religious, going to church and respecting her religious values. He also shows his trust by allowing her to have time alone and to write letters. He accepts her and does not force her anymore; Pamela describes “I found I needed not, from my Master’s Generosity, to be under any Restraint…for he… moved me to be free with him” (Richardson 309). This especially thrills Pamela because she can finally feel at peace around Mr. B. These changes help reconcile their previously forced relationship. Mr. B’s new attitude and actions demonstrate to Pamela his love for her and convince her that they can be happy together. It is only with these changes that Pamela sees the value of their match. The reader sees this explicit transition in Mr. B’s behavior and learns how to act accordingly.

In Evelina, Lord Orville’s traits set him apart from the other male characters. His constant patience, “generous conduct,” and the tenderness with which he treats Evelina stand out next to Sir Clement Willoughby’s persistent approach (Burney 106). Lord Orville also gains Evelina’s attention when he treats her so nicely in Bristol and cares for her as a brother by acting “more attentive, more obliging to [her] than ever,” making Evelina “the happiest of human beings! —To be thus reconciled to Lord Orville” (Burney 307). Their mutual respect for each other strengthens their relationship and convinces Evelina of his pure intentions. The constant praise and interest Evelina has for Lord Orville demonstrates the positive effect of a suitor having more respectful mannerisms toward his partner.

Elinor and Marianne have different ideals they would like to find in their Beau. Elinor is quite drawn to Edward due to his “sense and goodness” and their compatible tastes (Austen 22). Marianne enjoys Willoughby’s company because of his “captivating person…[and] natural ardour of mind” (Austen 50). Both women, though, want honesty from their partners. After the devastation of how both men were “very deceitful,” Elinor and Marianne both crave morality and honor from the men courting them (Austen 188). They also choose men who only want what is best for the ladies, as found with Edward and Brandon, who Elinor and Marianne marry. The consistency of trust and integrity ultimately makes them happy.

Based on the outcomes of Pamela, Evelina, and Sense and Sensibility, the readers of these novels witness the authors’ intention of portraying the proper, perhaps even ideal, male and his behavior. Richardson explains the importance of the man controlling himself during courtship and treating his partner gently. Burney illustrates the necessity of patience, friendship, and an overall fondness of one’s intended partner. Finally, Austen emphasizes the need for truth and good intentions in her story in order to please the woman.

These novels took many of their lessons from explicit didactic texts, such as The Regency Companion and The Lover’s Instructor, which were “valued for their didacticism” and often referred to as “conduct books” (Green 19). They “were so similar in content and purpose to novels written for women that one could well argue…for using the term courtesy novel to describe some period fiction” (Green 19). Their messages appealed to a large audience and were especially useful for situations regarding courtship. As seen in Evelina, “to read Burney’s novel and others of its kind… is to discover ‘the books of laws and customs’ that the embarrassed Evelina wished for when caught in her first social faux pas” (Green 19). Each lesson presented in the didactic texts and novels was for the benefit of the public. Readers valued their instructive, informative, and helpful advice for their own daily behavior.

The courtship novel in the eighteenth century creates a model of behavior for readers to follow in society. Pamela, Evelina, and Sense and Sensibility demonstrate instances of improper courting rituals and how they fail. Richardson, Burney and Austen use these didactic tools to advise their audience on the acceptable behavior in social situations surrounding courtship. The lessons that these authors presented in their novels still remain in modern day novels. While the exact messages may have changed, the existence of social standards and proper conduct remains a vital part in current writing. Didactic plots can also be found within other forms of media, such as television shows, movies, and more. The ideals for courtship have similarly changed, but examples of advice about acceptable behavior are still presented to the audiences. Didactic messages remain a central part of society and the population still turns to various forms of writing and media to act properly—especially in situations of courtship.

Bibliography

Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. New York: Penguin Classics, 1995.

Barney, Richard. Plots of Enlightenment: Education and the Novel in Eighteenth-Century England. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.

Burney, Frances. Evelina; or The History of a Young Lady’s Entrance into the World. New

York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Forbes, Joan. “Anti-Romantic Discourse as Resistance: Women’s Fiction 1775-1820.” Romance

Revisited. Ed. Lynne Pearce and Jackie Stacey. New York: New York University Press, 1995.

Green, Katherine S. The Courtship Novel 1740-1820: A Feminized Genre. Lexington: The

University Press of Kentucky, 1991.

Hamlin, Teresa L. and Sharon H. Laudermilk. The Regency Companion. New York: Garland

Publishing, Inc., 1989.

Hemlow, Joyce. “Fanny Burney and the Courtesy Books.” PMLA. Vol. 65 (1950): 732-761.

The Lover’s Instructor; or, The Whole Art of Courtship. London: The Kings Arms, 1770(?).

Pearce, Lynne. Romance Writing. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007.

Regis, Pamela. A Natural History of the Romance Novel. Philadelphia: University of

Philadelphia Press, 2003.

Richardson, Samuel. Pamela; or Virtue Rewarded. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Spacks, Patricia M. Desire and Truth: Functions of the Plot in Eighteenth-Century English

Novels. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990.

Yeazell, Ruth B. Fictions of Modesty: Women and Courtship in the English Novel. Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Epistolarity

The epistolary novel is a literary form whose significance in literary history is a matter of debate. While the first truly epistolary novel emerged in the late 15th century, the epistolary novel quickly reached widespread popularity in the 18th century in part, due to the notable works of authors such as Samuel Richardson with his most famous novel Pamela (1740) and Frances Burney with his Evelina (1778). However, the popularity of the epistolary novel was relatively short-lived however as criticism and backlash arose against the very aspects of the form to which its initial popularity can be attributed to. Consequently, the literary significance of the epistolary novel seems to have been directly correlated with its brief period of popularity, leading to the importance of the form being often understated. While these criticisms on the basis of technical merit are not unfounded, the epistolary novel has made significant contributions to the development of the novel. Its impact is evident in our contemporary society where the form is still common, now with the inclusion of electronic formats of communication in epistolary works. Its influence has even extended to beyond the literary form. Just a glimpse at several large box office movies in recent years reveals a large number of works based on epistolary novels, including Meg Cabot's The Princess Diaries, Helen Fielding's Bridget Jones's Diary, and Sophie Kinsella's Confessions of a Shopaholic. I will explore the effectiveness and ultimately the literary significance of the epistolary form by delineating the various sub-forms, following the evolution of the epistolary form into the third person narrative, comparing and contrasting between these two extremes. Ultimately, the third narration accomplishes effective language but compared to the first person epistolary form, fails to deliver a fulfilling and unified point of view.

There are many characteristics of the epistolary novel and its contextual origins that are exclusive to the form, making it especially fitting for the courtship novel. Letter writing was a common activity between lovers ever since the Middle Ages as a means of long distance communication as well as an intimate pastime. At the same time, the letter developed as a literary instrument as collections of model letters were published to teach the public how to write. The topics became increasingly varied and specific. Writers slowly moved away from the formal letter into familiar letters that related more to the readers themselves. As these compilations continued alongside developing fiction, the two genres slowly merged into one. According to Altman, "the letter form seems tailored for the love plot, with its emphasis on separation and reunion… At one moment, [the lover] may proclaim the power of the letter to make the distant addressee present and at the next lament the absence of the loved one and the letter's powerlessness to replace the spoken word or physical presence" (14). "The letter is... literally a chain of communication, one whose physical shape metamorphoses according to the sentimental forces acting upon it" (Altman: 15).

An example of an early collection of exchanged letters Les Lettres portugaises (1669) is a series of five letters written by a Portuguese nun to a French officer who had deserted her. These letters are characterized by their intensity, passion, emotion, aspects which would greatly influence the development of the epistolary novel. For Ros Ballaster, the language was "ostentatiously "natural" and implicitly associated with female desire" (63). Wurzbach says the letters "have a ring of actuality, for they are written almost exclusively in the narrator's present" without contradictory impulse (xxx). Eventually as the epistolary novel developed with fictitious plots and characters, themes and concepts were introduced, taking advantage of the letter framework. For example, in early epistolary novels such as Aphra Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister, a constant dynamic between sex and politics exists as it "doubly articulates the political and the sexual, eroticizing the former while it politicizes the latter" (Ballaster: 86).

English writer Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) was essential and highly significant to the development of the epistolary novel. Richardson adopted the epistolary form for himself as it granted him "the tools, the space, and the freedom to develop distinctly different characters speaking directly to the reader"(Ardolino). The form allowed for readers to look into the tiniest details of the characters’ daily lives and witness their development and progress over time. Richardson was able to translate his characters’ specific thoughts, actions, and fears into words in the first person perspective. The Richardsonian novel, simultaneously observing “the tempo of outer life and the flux of inner consciousness, [began] a new tradition in English and Continental fiction (Doody). However, as the act of writing is always "distanced from the correspondent's life," as Seymour Chatman said, Richardson's "to-the-moment-style" was often ridiculed (1978:171). Letter writers often speak in two perspectives. The experiencing self speaks as the action is taking place while the narrating self talks back and reflects upon the events. Instead of allowing the experiencing self greater expression, as Richardson did, the narrating and experiencing selves should maintain a balance: recounts of conversation mixed with present thoughts.

Fiction in the late eighteenth century shows "reason and feeling in constant negotiation and interaction within consciousness, with neither triumphing over the other" (Bray: 92). John Mullan describes the sensibility in Richardson's novels as "not so much spoken as displayed…. its vocabulary is that of gestures and palpitations, sighs and tears" (61). Todd states that "the ultimate emotion is inexpressible" but agrees with Mullan that "broken syntax and typographical exuberance" help suggest such high sensibility by "emphasizing the limited nature of verbal communication"(Mullan: 25). Characters in first person novels in the late eighteenth century frequently examine the "irregular motion of their thoughts" following an "initial impression or emotion" (Bray: 95). Evelina in Evelina: or, The History of a Young Lady's Entrance into the World (1778) is very capable of remembering moments of strong emotion and particular instances of crises but her narrating self. For example, Evelina remembers her fears right before meeting her father: “when we stopped at the door, I was almost senseless with terror! the meeting at last, was not so dreadful as that moment!” (370) However moments as such “are not followed by coherent reasonings of the narrating self as it is unable to make sense of these past sensations from her experiencing self” (Bray: 97). As Todd mentioned, the epistolary novel of sensibility often exaggerates character's inability to shape strong feeling into thoughts (Bray: 99). "Initial impressions can be too chaotic and disordered to be translated into reasoned ideas…" (99). The emotions of the experiencing self are shaped and transformed by the narrating self. “Feeling and reason… combine, as each tempers the other" (102).

In the early nineteenth century, Jane Austen breaks from the epistolary style into third-person indirect thought, which allows readers to have greater confidence in the narrator. April Alliston says that this new “narratorial voice... exerts tighter control over readers' judgment and sympathies'” (236) than the epistolary form, which had become... '”the genre of deceit and thus of suspect sensibility” (233). "In [Austen’s] epistolary juvenilia characters generally attempt 'to express on paper exactly what one would say to the same person by word of mouth', and the internal tensions... are absent" (Bray: 123-124). For her, third person narration may have allowed “expression of internal, psychological conflict” (Epstein 416) as the letter appears “incompatible with private thoughts and hidden feelings" as the writer needs to keep in mind the reader and is unable to speak without reserve (Bray: 122-123).

Austen is plainly mistaken to come to such conclusions. Alternatively, “the often praised psychological depth of Austen’s [characters] can be traced back to the internal debates and soul searching of letter writers” (Bray 131). Pamela is full of streams of inner consciousness, for example, as Pamela recounts her sexual harassment at the hands of her master:

… Now, you will say, all his wickedness appeared plainly. I struggled and trembled, and was so benumbed with terror, that I sunk down, not in a fit, and yet not myself; and I found myself in his arms, quite void of strength; and he kissed me two or three times, with frightful eagerness.—At last I burst from him, and was getting out of the summer-house; but he held me back, and shut the door.

I would have given my life for a farthing. And he said, I'll do you no harm, Pamela; don't be afraid of me. I said, I won't stay. You won't, hussy! said he: Do you know whom you speak to? I lost all fear, and all respect, and said, Yes, I do, sir, too well!—Well may I forget that I am your servant, when you forget what belongs to a master. (23)

The interest in this scene stems from the very excess of melodrama. After realizing her master, Mr. B. has ill intentions, Pamela does little to protect herself. Instead, she allows Mr. B. more opportunities to victimize her and may even be provoking him to do so. Although third person narrative may be much more straightforward and simple, third person narration would not be able to reveal such contradiction of intentions with such forcefulness.

In addition, such drama and emotion, present in the epistolary form, is very much absent in Austen’s writing:

... Before the house-maid had lit their fire the next day, or the sun gained any power over a cold, gloomy morning in January, Marianne, only half dressed, was kneeling against one of the window-seats for the sake of all the little light she could command from it, and writing as fast as a continual flow of tears would permit her. In this situation, Elinor, roused from sleep by her agitation and sobs, first perceived her; and after observing her for a few moments with silent anxiety, said, in a tone of the most considerate gentleness,

"Marianne, may I ask?" --

"No, Elinor," she replied, "ask nothing; you will soon know all."

The sort of desperate calmness with which this was said, lasted no longer than while she spoke, and was immediately followed by a return of the same excessive affliction. It was some minutes before she could go on with her letter, and the frequent bursts of grief which still obliged her, at intervals, to withhold her pen, were proofs enough of her feeling how more than probable it was that she was writing for the last time to Willoughby.

Elinor paid her every quiet and unobtrusive attention in her power; and she would have tried to sooth and tranquillize her still more, had not Marianne entreated her, with all the eagerness of the most nervous irritability, not to speak to her for the world. In such circumstances, it was better for both that they should not be long together; and the restless state of Marianne's mind not only prevented her from remaining in the room a moment after she was dressed, but requiring at once solitude and continual change of place, made her wander about the house till breakfast time, avoiding the sight of everybody. (171)

Compared to first person narration, this excerpt from Austen’s Sense and Sensibility demonstrates third person narration to be very much lacking. Readers get to know little beyond the surface of how Marianne feels. Marianne has been abandoned by the love of her life and is extremely devastated yet the writing fails to portray the intensity and turmoil that is inherent to her character. Instead of knowing what she is thinking specifically, readers only get information on what she does following the abandonment, how long it took to recover, etc. The voice we hear is truly passive and does not satisfy the reader.

Another example of such emotional dearth is when Elinor realizes that the man of her dreams is still single:

But Elinor-- how are her feelings to be described?-- From the moment of learning that Lucy was married to another, that Edward was free, to the moment of his justifying the hopes which had so instantly followed, she was everything by turns but tranquil. But when the second moment had passed -- when she found every doubt, every solicitude removed -- compared her situation with what so lately it had been -- saw him honourably released from his former engagement, saw him instantly profiting by the release, to address herself and declare an affection as tender, as constant as she had ever supposed it to be -- she was oppressed, she was overcome by her own felicity; and happily disposed as is the human mind to be easily familiarized with any change for the better, it required several hours to give sedateness to her spirits, or any degree of tranquillity to her heart. (338)

There is too much control over the words, more action and description over emotion.

Regardless of the skill in Austen’s portrayal of psychological depth in her mature novels, the epistolary form is capable of adding yet another layer to the character. Critics of Pamela often argue that the writing is unrealistic. However, if you take the writing as Austen does, at face value, assuming letter writers to be simply jotting down what they think as they write, there is simply nothing wrong with Pamela’s logic and claims. Pamela is writing to her parents and often comes across as innocent, helpless, filial and virtuous as she should be. However, slowly, the reader comes to realize and add up her contradictions as much as she tries to hide them, adding to the interest of the novel.

Similarly, Elizabeth Meyer’s Twilight is entertaining due its melodrama. Only by reading Bella’s thoughts can we later disagree with her and mock her intentions. Bella is introduced as one of the most self-centered, fake, and manipulative of teenagers. Bella's features make her the center of attention in school. Bella uses this to her advantage when she needs to, but will disregard the person otherwise. When classmates help her around the school on the first day, she points out that "Eric walked me right to the door, though it was clearly marked" (17) and "at least I never needed the map" (17). Also, when she meets new friends, she "[forgets] all their names" as soon as she was told them. However, she does explain to the readers that she had never been the social type and "tried to be diplomatic" (17). It is nearly impossible to display such sarcasm and blatant rudeness in third person narration. A third person narrative would certainly detract from this entertaining mawkishness.

Continuing this point, even though Bella ignores much of the support other classmates give her, Bella is obsessed with the vampire boy. Whereas she is mostly stoic towards other boys her age who try to pursue her, she becomes the model damsel in distress in Edward's presence. She takes on the role the fragile and insecure female yet she tries to be strong enough to stay with Edward, a dangerous mythical being and love of her life. By the end of the novel, she is completely willing to give up her life and future to become a vampire and live together with Edward forever. The constant remarks about Edward Cullen, especially those about his looks, imitate the thoughts of a typical girl who is in love. However, the remarks are often accompanied by so much melodrama that it is very much overdone and comical.

While it is evident in the aforementioned examples that the first person narrative is capable of surpassing Austen’s third person narrative’s ability to portray the inner consciousness, it also succeeds in delivering much clearer messages to the reader. Austen’s “widespread use of style allows competing and sometimes contradictory perspectives [from different characters] to struggle without resolution, preventing the establishment of authority and making definitive moral judgments impossible" (Bray: 118). The narrator is usually unable to get too personal with a particular character, focusing on the action instead of the emotions. Richardson’s Pamela, Austen’s Sense and Sensibility, and Meyer’s Twilight can all be considered to be didactic novels. By the end of his book, Richardson, as if it were not already apparent, lists all the lessons we should have learned from the book. He emphasizes the importance of virtue and teaches the behavior of a good wife and husband. Edward is Meyer’s model of an ideal boyfriend. He is sweet, dangerous, sensitive, mysterious, handsome, jealous, and self-sacrificing. Meyer tells us that a good relationship is based on constant communication and that love is worth doing anything for. However, in Sense and Sensibility, the lessons are much less obvious. It is very much a social commentary on the different types of relationships that existed in eighteenth century England. She also demonstrates the flaws in two different personalities: one solely based on sense, the other on sensibility, the ideal being a combination of the two. However, the absence of a perfect relationship makes the message less transparent.

It is clear that the literary significance of the epistolary form should be of no debate as it is much more than what readers give it credit for. There exists many different styles of writing within the epistolary form itself, ranging from, as well as originating as, early letters of seduction and (drama) as demonstrated by Les Lettres portugaises to the letters of confidence in Pamela. The epistolary form itself contributes to the plot of the story as it excels over third person narrative in character portrayal and message delivery. The dynamics within the letter "creates not 'simple amorous subjectives' but complex, 'divided' one" (Bray:43). No other type of novel has been more successful in capturing “the human form” (Bray: 137)

Bibliography

Bray, Joe. The Epistolary Novel: Representations of Consciousness. London [u.a.: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Fielding, Henry. An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews. Cambridge, Eng.: Minority, 1930. Print.

Flohr, Birgitt. "How Reliable a Narrator is Richardson's Pamela?" London: King's College London, 1998. Print.

MacArthur, Elizabeth. "Devious Narratives: Refusal of Closure in Two Eighteenth Century Novels." Eighteenth Century Studies 21.1 (1987): 1-20. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Web.

Altman, Janet Gurkin. Epistolarity: Approaches to a Form. Columbus: Ohio State UP, c1982. Print.

Redford, Bruce. The Converse of the Pen: Acts of Intimacy in the Eighteenth-century Familiar Letter. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1986. Print.

Mullan, John. Sentiment and Sociability: the Language of Feeling in the Eighteenth Century. New York : Oxford University Press, 1988. Print.

Singer, Godfrey Frank. The Epistolary Novel: Its Origin, Development, Decline, and Residuary Influence. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1933. Print.

Wurzbach, Natascha. Introduction. The Novel in Letters: Epistolary Fiction in the Early English Novel ; 1678 - 1740. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969. Print.

Ardolino, Frank. "Richardson's Pamela." The Explicator 66.2 (2008): 78+. Literature Resource Center. Web. 23 Feb. 2011.

Ballaster, Ros. Seductive forms: women’s amatory fiction from 1684 to 1740, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. Print.

Chatman, Seymour. Story and Discourse: narrative structure in fiction and film, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1978. Print.

Alliston, April. Virtue’s Faults: correspondences in eighteenth-century British and French women’s fiction, Stanford: Standford University Press, 1996. Print.